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Five types of disinformation – and how to spot…

Environment · October 16, 2026 · The Conversation · 5 min

Disinformation is false, fabricated or manipulated information that intends to deceive. Here’s how to counter it with scientific evidence.

<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/question-climate-change-on-banner-mens-2196631335">AndriiKoval/Shutterstock</a></span> </figcaption> </figure>

<span><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/mark-maslin-108286">Mark Maslin</a>, <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/ucl-1885">UCL</a></em></span>

<p>We’re living in an age of constant information: tweets, headlines, reels, reports. It’s everywhere, all the time. But here’s the challenge: not all of it is true. Some of it is intentionally misleading. A lot is <a href="https://www.turing.ac.uk/blog/ai-disinformation-incident-repository-how-ai-transforming-crisis-events">AI-generated</a>. From outright climate denial to more subtle <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/greenwashing">greenwashing</a>, disinformation is not just a digital nuisance – it’s a real threat.</p>

<p>Disinformation is false, fabricated or manipulated information that intends to deceive, while misinformation is false or misleading information shared without the intent to deceive. </p>

<p>AI is playing an increasingly powerful role in how information and <a href="https://www.turing.ac.uk/blog/ai-disinformation-incident-repository-how-ai-transforming-crisis-events">disinformation spread</a>. AI bots are software programmes designed to simulate human behaviour online. They can generate content, post on social media, chat with users and operate at massive scale. AI tools can create realistic-looking fake articles, images, <a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PEA1043-1.html">even deepfakes</a> of experts. Bots can amplify these messages to manipulate public opinion – especially during key moments such as elections or climate summits.</p>

<p><a href="https://earth.sas.upenn.edu/people/michael-mann">Michael Mann</a>, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania, has broken down climate <a href="https://scribepublications.co.uk/books/science-under-siege">disinformation into five key groups</a>. Here’s how to spot those five forms of disinformation and counter them with scientific evidence.</p>

<h2>1. Downplay</h2>

<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/five-climate-change-science-misconceptions-debunked-122570">Minimising the seriousness of the climate crisis</a> involves classic comments such as “it’s not that bad” or “climate change is natural – it’s always happened”. Downplaying creates complacency. It dulls public urgency, delays policy action and makes the problem seem less immediate than it is. </p>

<p>But science shows that this has been the warmest decade on record and global temperatures will continue to <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-how-bad-could-the-future-be-if-we-do-nothing-159665">increase every year due to greenhouse gas emissions</a>. In 2025 there were <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/unequal-evidence-and-impacts-limits-to-adaptation-extreme-weather-in-2025/">157 incidences of extreme weather</a> around the world with significant consequences for more than 100 million people. </p>

<h2>2. Delay</h2>

<p>This type of disinformation acknowledges climate change as real but <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-five-corrupt-pillars-of-climate-change-denial-122893">argues that action can wait</a>. Comments include “we should wait until the technology is better”, “let’s not rush into drastic policies”, “innovation will solve this – eventually” or “we need more research before acting”. </p>

<p>Delay equals denial in slow motion. It gives the illusion of concern while justifying inaction, letting emissions continue and narrowing the window for meaningful action. </p>

<p>It also means that the public and politicians ignore the urgency of climate change and are not preparing. For example, many countries, <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/2025/04/30/the-country-is-not-prepared-for-climate-impacts-say-advisors/">including the UK</a>, are not even planning to adapt to the changes that are <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/causes-effects-climate-change">already occurring</a> – such as sea level rise, more frequent heatwaves, drought, wildfires, floods and storms.</p>

<h2>3. Deflection</h2>

<p>Deflection shifts attention away from systemic solutions and toward other issues, often to avoid responsibility or blame someone else. You might hear people say things like “individuals need to do more – stop blaming companies”, “until big polluters act, nothing we do matters”, “aren’t there more urgent problems to focus on?” or even “what about China?”.</p>

<p>Deflection diverts energy from collective action and structural change. It stalls progress and divides public support. </p>

<p>The science clearly shows that the world must decarbonise the entire economy and reach a point by 2050 at which <a href="https://netzeroclimate.org/publications/net-zero-science-origins-and-implications/">no additional greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere</a>. So every country and every company has to change – and as quickly as possible. </p>

<h2>4. Division</h2>

<p>Division aims to create distrust and polarise the conversation. This turns climate action into a political or cultural wedge. You might hear phrases like “climate change is just a leftist agenda”, “scientists are part of a global conspiracy”, “they want to take away your freedom in the name of climate”, “net zero will make your energy prices go up” and the classic “they’re just trying to control you”. </p>

<figure class="align-center zoomable"> <a aria-label="Zoomable image" href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/766159/original/file-20261014-50-g9nnoh.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.1&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="yellow background, graphic of red arrow, two outlines of people moving away from each other in opposite directions" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/766159/original/file-20261014-50-g9nnoh.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.1&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/766159/original/file-20261014-50-g9nnoh.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.1&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/766159/original/file-20261014-50-g9nnoh.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.1&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/766159/original/file-20261014-50-g9nnoh.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.1&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/766159/original/file-20261014-50-g9nnoh.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.1&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/766159/original/file-20261014-50-g9nnoh.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.1&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/766159/original/file-20261014-50-g9nnoh.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.1&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a> <figcaption> <span class="caption">Division aims to create distrust in science and institutions.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/business-dispute-disagreement-vector-concept-two-2661060633">afry_harvy/Shutterstock</a></span> </figcaption> </figure>

<p>Division undermines trust in science, institutions and each other. It fuels tribalism, making cooperation harder when it’s needed most. The fossil fuel industry and lobby invented and used the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/aug/23/big-oil-coined-carbon-footprints-to-blame-us-for-their-greed-keep-them-on-the-hook">carbon footprint approach</a> to blame individual consumption instead of admitting that the problem is about the global supply of energy. </p>

<p>The latest approach involves blaming <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2026/oct/07/scientists-technology-less-likely-climate-crisis-action">climate scientists</a> for not communicating effectively and not making the public and politicians <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jun/26/leading-scientist-criticises-uk-over-its-climate-record">aware of the true risks</a>. </p>

<h2>5. Doomism</h2>

<p>Doomism promotes the idea that the climate crisis is already beyond saving, leading to apathy instead of action. You might hear comments such as “we’re past the tipping point — it’s hopeless”, “the planet is doomed no matter what we do”, “why bother trying?” and “it’s too late – nothing we do matters”.</p>

<p>Doomism paralyses people with despair, just as much as denial. It discourages solutions, undermines collective action, and hands victory to the status quo. </p>

<p>Yet there are so <a href="https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/320155/how-to-save-our-planet-by-maslin-mark/9780241472521">many positive solutions</a> that exist which not only reduce greenhouse gas emissions but also make peoples lives better. A global switch to renewable energy creates local energy security, reduces energy costs and reduces harmful air pollution generated by burning fossil fuels. </p>

<p>Getting people to switch to more <a href="https://theconversation.com/which-diet-will-help-save-our-planet-climatarian-flexitarian-vegetarian-or-vegan-186772">plant-based diets</a> makes everyone more healthy, reduces healthcare costs and reduces deforestation.</p>

<h2>How to spot red flags</h2>

<p>Encouraging critical thinking is a powerful antidote to disinformation. Certain red flags can help you spot disinformation that might be misleading or wrong. </p>

<p>If a post is designed to provoke outrage or fear, take a moment before reacting. Emotion is often used to bypass critical thinking.</p>

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